How can language learners be corrected?

In many cases, some teachers may tend to only focus on certain aspects of language such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling when using correction and feedback. However, the scope should be wider. For instance, in terms of speaking, correction and feedback could also take into account such things as fluency and coherence, and organization and development of ideas. Language is after all complex, so try to consider all aspects of language use when using correction and feedback.

Furthermore, considering how and when the correction and feedback happens is not a simple choice. Are the students doing pair work? Is it a whole-class discussion? Is the activity supposed to be a controlled practice? A warm-up? A brainstorm?

A useful place to start is to categorise correction and feedback into three broad areas: self-correction, peer-correction, and teacher to student correction and feedback.

Self-correction and Feedback

In this approach, students correct mistakes they have made on their own. This makes the correction more memorable for the student, as they work out their mistakes for themselves. This also encourages independence from the teacher and gives the student more motivation and confidence. Furthermore, this helps the student take responsibility for their own learning. Students learn to recognise their own problem areas and gain a better awareness of the language. For example, a student might make a verb tense error and immediately rephrase it, e.g. “Yesterday I go out for lunch… sorry, I went out for lunch.” The teacher must allow time for this self-correction to happen and avoid interrupting students in the middle of the communication process.

An easy way to get a student to self-correct when speaking is to respond with, ‘Sorry. Could you say that again?’ or ‘Please, repeat that.’ The student will then reformulate their language and in most cases, correct their mistake. If a student is still having problems, you could write the sentence on the board and ask them to find the mistake. You could also leave a blank where the mistake was made and ask the student to fill in the gap.

When you want students to self-correct their writing, write down the number of mistakes they made and indicate the type of mistake. Then have them try to find the mistakes and correct them. Try to limit the focus to only three or four error types such as past tense verb forms, spelling, articles, etc. A page full of red pen marks can often confuse, overwhelm, and discourage students. A similar approach could be to use error correction codes that are written by the teacher as annotations in the original text. An example of an error correction code could be something like ‘VT’ for verb tense. Upon seeing VT in the annotations, the student should immediately understand that the sentence contains a verb tense error and then try to correct it accordingly.

Another useful way of identifying and providing students with an opportunity to improve their self-correcting skills is through oral production. Recording audio or a video can be employed as a useful feedback tool for students. Just like in any creative endeavour, reviewing, revising, and editing is essential for improvement. This should be no different for productive language skills such as speaking.

A drawback of this approach is that students may not understand how to self-correct or be clear on the correct language to use. This could lead to the reinforcement of errors. There is also a chance that students may not recognize the mistakes they are making. The student may also over-correct or become too self-conscious about errors. It is better for students to use self-correcting with another correcting method. In this way, they get the most benefit.

Self-correction and feedback are usually only effective if they are guided. To guide students through this process, use checklists that break down a skill into its key components. This not only makes self-correction more effective but also more efficient. For example, speaking can often be broken down into these core components:

1. Fluency and coherence

2. Pronunciation

3. Vocabulary range and accuracy

4. Grammatical range and accuracy

From this basic breakdown, a checklist, as in the table below, could be developed by the teacher so that it focuses on particular language use areas. Thus, using this checklist, a student could review a recorded oral presentation rehearsal and check off the points they were able to achieve.

Checklists provide more controlled and guided self-correction than simply allowing students to correct themselves on the go. In fact, they should also be used in peer-correction, and teacher to student correction and feedback.

Peer Correction and Feedback

In this approach, a student works with another student to correct their mistakes, check their answers, give feedback, or ask questions. Some (if not most) students find it easier to accept corrections and feedback from a classmate than a teacher. This approach works best during pair or group work, when students normally compare answers, do an exercise together or share their thoughts in a speaking activity. As they are not being corrected in front of the whole class, it provides a safer environment, especially for more shy or less confident students who can, thus, have a better opportunity to produce and practice the language.

When students help each other, it encourages them to listen and become more involved in class activities, develop teamwork and support, and a sense of responsibility. It is also beneficial for the student providing the correction as this is a great way for them to consolidate their own understanding of a particular skill or language point. Being able to teach somebody about something is also a confidence booster.

There are some disadvantages to this approach: the students offering the correction can provide the wrong answer, they might not identify the mistakes correctly, or they may not be able to communicate feedback clearly and effectively.

Although these problems could be seen as part of the learning process, it is important that mistakes are not reinforced. Therefore, when students are doing an activity on their own, monitoring becomes one of the teacher’s most important skills. Students are likely to make similar mistakes, and these mistakes tend to be picked up during monitoring. In this way, all the students get reinforcement of the correct language.

In using peer correction and feedback, it is best to pair a weaker student with a stronger one. Similarly, for group activities try to have a mix of student abilities. This is so that weaker students actually benefit from the experience, and feedback and correction activities are not cases of ‘the blind leading the blind’. It is also important not to always put students in the same groups. This is so that relatively stronger students can have the opportunity to be a mentee rather than always being the mentor.

Teacher to Student Correction and Feedback

This is probably the most common and overused approach to correction and feedback in language teaching. It most commonly involves a teacher identifying mistakes and giving immediate and accurate corrections supported by explanations and examples.

Two effective ways teacher correction and feedback can be used are through modelling and highlighting to catch errors in the early stages before they are repeated by students. The goal here is to avoid the practice of mistakes. For example, if a student gets used to saying, “I have hungry” and keeps repeating that for a long time, it will be harder to correct in the future, as they have already internalized the mistake.

Also, keep in mind the goal of the activity and the skill to be developed. Sometimes it is better to correct the student and provide feedback after their production rather than doing it on the spot, which results in frequent interruptions.

The teacher can also focus on common errors made as a class rather than singling out individual students. This is especially advised for teaching students from cultures in which maintaining ‘face’ is highly valued.

It is also important to keep in mind that teacher to student correction and feedback creates a teacher-centred classroom. If it is used too often, it might prevent students from noticing their mistakes. Not to mention, it is very demanding on the teacher, who should be performing the role of a moderator or facilitator instead of being a ‘correction machine’.

In a more decentralized class setting, using self and peer correction and feedback can be highly effective in not only fostering learner autonomy but also encouraging a more interactive learning environment.

A mistake or a slip?

When discussing the issue of correction, it is also important for the teacher to distinguish a mistake from a slip and handle them differently. This is because it can avoid unnecessary intrusions by the teacher.

A mistake can be considered something the students produce in an incorrect way, which can impact their intended meaning and hinder communication. For example, using wrong verb tenses and mispronunciations are typical mistakes language learners make. They need to be addressed through correction to avoid consolidation and repetition over time.

While also incorrect, slips can be seen as something temporary which students are generally able to pick up and correct themselves. They can be caused by external factors such as anxiety (when making a presentation in front of the class, for example), fatigue or simply lack of attention. For instance, look at the following conversation between a student and a teacher:

Student: I go to work 8 a.m.

Teacher: Oh, I go to work at 8 a.m. too. What time do you start?

Student: I arrive there at 8:30 a.m. and start work at 9 a.m.

Thus, it is important to consider:

• Did the student make a mistake by not using ‘at’ before ‘8 a.m.’ or was it just a slip?

• Should the teacher have interrupted the conversation to use correction?

• How did the teacher provide correction in this case?

• What might be the goal of this activity, e.g. speaking practice or a grammar exercise?

As you can see, before deciding to intervene and use correction, it is important to be aware of the multiple subtleties involved in an activity. In the example conversation above, while it seems that the teacher is simply conversing with the student, there is more going on. Not only is the teacher paying attention to the student’s output, but also providing correction in an effective way - without stopping the flow of what is most likely a free practice speaking activity rather than a controlled activity.

Sometimes a simple gesture is enough to make students aware of a mistake. For example, simply pointing backwards with the thumb can help students realize they should have used the verb in the past simple form. There is no need to stop the activity, grab the spotlight and start a 10-minute grammar explanation about verb tenses. Maybe the perceived error was just a ‘slip’ and the students will be able to correct themselves with little input from the teacher or even use the right structure if given another chance to do so.

As a teacher, it is really important to put students’ mistakes into context and take into account their level of English and what kind of task they are performing.

What considerations should be given to learning styles when using correction?

People are different and so are their learning styles. Some students may feel intimidated by corrections while others welcome them - they may even make an intentional mistake to check if the teacher is paying attention. For the teacher, ‘balance’ is the key. Get to know your students and find the best way of using correction and feedback in class.

A suggested approach could be to use peer correction and feedback during activities and teacher to student at the end of the tasks. Start there and make changes as required.

Also consider your students’ intrapersonal and interpersonal skills. That is, knowing how to identify if they work better when alone or in groups. This can have a positive impact on the way correction and feedback is used in class.

Students who are intrapersonal (solitary) learners are more likely to benefit from self-correction activities especially due to their self-conscious nature. On the other hand, social learners can be more effective when working and collaborating with their classmates, so peer correction and feedback is ideal for them.

In conclusion, using correction and feedback as a second language teacher is not just simply telling students to do an exercise and reading the answer key afterwards. There are many more aspects to be considered.

Hopefully, this article has given a little insight in how to incorporate correction and feedback into lesson plans more effectively. Try to vary your approach and consider some of the points raised here. This is a well-researched area of second language instruction, so further reading on the topic should prove to be illuminating. Remember that correction and feedback can (and should) be used as positive tools, fostering independent learning in students, and building a more collaborative classroom environment. Sometimes the teacher needs to stand back a little while there are times when the students expect the teacher to take a more hands on approach. Be present, get to know your students and employ the approach the situation demands.

The way a teacher begins a lesson has a significant impact on its success as it sets the right tone and helps to engage the students and focus their attention on the topic of the day. The first part of a lesson also allows students to get familiar with the expected learning outcomes of the session. If a teacher goes straight to the main task of a lesson without some lead-in or opener, there is every chance that students won’t be ready, making it harder for them to achieve the aims of the lesson.

Apart from routine activities done in the opening minutes of a lesson such as taking attendance, there are many ways teachers can spice up the beginnings of their lessons. Here are ten useful ideas you can use to start your class.

1. Use Homework to Flip the Lesson

Homework is most often assigned to have students review course content, consolidate the content of a lesson just taught, or simply for self-study. However, by using a flipped classroom approach, homework can be used as an effective way to open a lesson. In the flipped approach, students are presented with the topic of the next lesson through homework. In a flipped classroom, homework content can be delivered in many forms. This may include, discussion boards, a research task, or reading and listening texts. In class, a quick review of the content covered through the homework can be done through activities such as discussions or quizzes. In this way, students can come to class knowing what the theme or focus of the lesson is and be better prepared for the activities to come. This approach works best when the content is either matched to the students’ interests or relevant to their immediate learning needs.

2. Setting a Challenge

A less conventional lead-in to a lesson could be to simply ask students to attempt the skill being taught from the outset. For example, ask students to give a presentation at the beginning of a lesson if the objective of the lesson is for students to understand how to give an effective presentation. From completing the challenge, students should be able to reflect on their presentations and consider what they were able to do well and what their shortcomings were. This can be a springboard from which to elicit from students what they believe are the key components of successful presentations. These reflections should hopefully align with the learning objectives of the lesson. Through this process, it should become apparent to students the relevance and significance of the content that will be covered in the lesson.

This type of opening tends to work well for lessons where the focus is on a productive or functional skill such as the example given here or other skills such as writing an email or making a phone call.

3. Reviewing the Previous Lesson

You may find students easily forget what they did in the previous lesson, so it is always worth reviewing what they have studied in the last class. This helps keep the material fresh in the students’ mind and helps them recall the vocabulary and language they have studied. Furthermore, it allows you to connect the previous topic with the new topic. Regular reviewing of previous lessons is also useful in preparing students for assessment as it helps consolidate what students have learned.

To make reviews fun for the students, try creating a quiz game where the students answer questions for points. A Jeopardy-style game works great for reviewing previous lessons because you can choose the topics you want them to practice.

Teaching is a great way to review what students have learned. Therefore, you could also have students teach something they have learned in class to their peers. Additionally, rather than the teacher clarifying a point, ask students if they can answer a question from a classmate. For students, returning to class after a period of absence, you could review important points from the missed lessons by eliciting input from the class.

4. Media

Since modern classrooms contain useful multi-media equipment, it is easy to exploit audio-visual content to help kick off an interesting and successful lesson.

Pictures are useful for creating interest in the topic you are about to teach. You can use photos, drawings, cartoons, paintings, symbols, flashcards, magazine ads, etc. Pictures allow students to be creative as they are open to different interpretations. You can use pictures to introduce or elicit vocabulary, predict the content of a reading or listening text, or guess a main idea, etc. They provide a talking point and help students share their opinions and ideas.

In the same way that using pictures helps raise interest in a topic, playing a song is great for catching students’ interest. If one of the language points of the lesson is the present perfect, look for a song that has words like 'Have you ever...?’ or ‘I’ve been to...’ in it, mainly in the title or chorus. You could also use a song with a past simple theme and ask students to write down all the past tense verbs they can hear.

Videos can be even more appealing than pictures and songs as they have both audio and visual stimuli. They are great not only for generating interest in a topic but also to focus on specific points of the lesson such as vocabulary or functional language. Moreover, video can be useful when trying to expose students to other important aspects of learning a language such as the cultures in which the language is used.

5. Class Discussion

Discussions can be used to begin a class with higher-level students. Pose a question or questions to the students about the topic you are going to teach to generate discussion and debate. Class discussions help to improve the students' critical thinking skills and get the students thinking about what they know about the subject and what they want to know. This in turn helps them retain more information.

It is important to give students time to think about the answer(s) first. Students usually feel more comfortable expressing ideas and answering questions if they have some time to think about them first. Just as important as thinking time is to consider if the discussions are going to take place in pairs, small groups, or the whole class. It can be a good idea to start with pairs or small groups and then move to a whole class setting.

Assigning roles is an effective strategy for group discussions. Possible roles may include:

Manager: ensures that the group stays on task, on topic, and that everyone contributes.

Recorder: records critical points from the discussion along with findings or answers.

Presenter: reports the group’s ideas to the rest of the class.

6. Error Correction Activities

Using error correction activities to start the class is an interesting way to review and draw attention to language points such as punctuation, spelling and grammar rules. An effective activity is to write sentences on the board which are related to the topic you are teaching and contain mistakes for students to spot. Begin by asking students to come to the board and correct the mistakes. One benefit of this activity is that it adds movement to the lesson by getting students out of their seats, which can help enliven students at times of the day when attention spans can wane.

Error correction activities at the start of a lesson are also useful when students are making the same mistakes repeatedly as they offer the opportunity to review a particular language point or structure and hopefully avoid repeating the mistake during the lesson.

7. Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a very easy way to begin a class and is very simple to do. Brainstorming entails eliciting everything students know about a topic. You do this by writing the students' background knowledge and ideas on the board. Write up any vocabulary or information that is useful to the lesson. Try to connect ideas or content together to give the students a platform to work from.

A great way of doing this is working with mind maps. Start out with a simple central idea based on the topic of the lesson like ‘The future’, ‘Travel’ or ‘Clothes’. As you elicit other words and ideas from students, add branches to the map and make connections between them. To make the mind map easier to understand, try colour coding the information. This will help students easily identify and categorise key ideas and see how they connect to one another. Mind maps are great for starting a new topic as they activate prior knowledge from which students can make connections to whatever input material is being used.

8. Using Vocabulary Activities

Vocabulary activities are a good way of reviewing specific words learned in past lessons or can serve as a preparation for a new topic. One obvious situation for employing a vocabulary game or activity is as a pre-reading or pre-listening activity. For example, this could be done by taking key or unfamiliar words from the text that is going to be read in class and distributing them to the class in small groups. Each group is given a different set of words. In their groups, students are then required to find the meaning, pronunciation, and an example sentence for each word. Students then form new groups to exchange their respective completed word sets. This type of activity is a more fun and interesting way of previewing vocabulary than the so often used definition matching type activities.

Other useful vocabulary games can be found on the Teach This ESL Vocabulary Games page and ESL Word Games page.

9. Previewing the Lesson

Previewing the lesson gets the students thinking about what they are going to study. It lets the students know what to expect in the lesson, so they can mentally prepare themselves as well as reduce any anxiety they may be feeling. Explain the objectives of the lesson and how they are going to be achieved. It is also very important to explain the significance of the objective and how it will benefit the students. In other words, tell students how the lesson can help them in situations outside of class. For example, the objective of the lesson might be to have students produce outlines as part of the writing process. Some students may not see the point of this and see it as a waste of time. But by simply explaining how outlining can save time and result in better essays and ultimately better grades, it can result in a positive shift in student motivation.

10. Playing a Game

Playing a game is an excellent way to begin a lesson. It makes the students energized and brings enjoyment to the whole class. It also gets the students involved in producing English by doing something fun.

Kinaesthetic games, those centred around movement, are a great way to spice things up especially if they have spent most of the day in more passive types of learning. This type of activity can be as simple as a game of stand-up/sit down in which students are asked basic yes/no questions. When answering ‘yes’, they stand up rather than simply calling out the answer. When answering ‘no’, they sit down. The main take-away here is that it doesn’t require a great amount of creativity to integrate movement into your lesson openings. If prepared carefully, an activity like this is not only effective for getting students energised, but it can also help in reviewing content from previous classes or activate students’ prior knowledge for the topic you’re going to teach.

But don’t forget that while games are fun and can help set a positive tone for the class, they are not just about having fun. Games should help to introduce or practice the topic or subject matter of the lesson. Most games can be easily adapted to introduce any language point or topic. Check out our Fun ESL Classroom Games section for enjoyable games to play with your students.

Mixed-ability ESL classes are very common in schools and universities throughout the world. Depending on a school’s system of assessing and grouping their students, these mixed-ability classes often consist of students with varying levels of English from pure beginner to upper-intermediate. On top of that, students in mixed-ability classes usually come from different learning backgrounds. Not surprisingly, this can be overwhelming for the teacher and students alike. This article will address the challenges that this type of class poses and will cover some strategies and activities you can use to overcome them, ultimately creating a positive atmosphere for learning.

What are the benefits of teaching mixed-ability ESL classes?

When you think of mixed-ability classes, what comes to mind? Does the thought of teaching this kind of class feel intimidating? Perhaps you might wonder if students even benefit from being with other students who are not at the same level. On the contrary, students benefit in many ways from mixed-ability ESL classes. This type of class is an opportune environment for cooperative or collaborative learning, it is also referred to as peer teaching by some scholars, which is a common method implemented by teachers to support mixed-ability groupings.

Research has also shown that the pairing or grouping of students at different levels helps to promote active learning because their support of lower-level students helps to reinforce their own learning. Even though the weaker students may appear to gain more from this pairing; this pairing is mutually beneficial for both students in terms of language learning. Higher-level students gain not only self-confidence but are also more likely to retain what they learn by helping their classmates. Furthermore, students develop team-building skills and learn to communicate within a group to achieve the tasks set in class. Studies have also stated that this teamwork greatly influences the development of supportive relationships and greater self-esteem. Depending on the classroom dynamics, higher-level students who guide and support their classmates, help to motivate their peers to complete the set task. In both cases, the students learn and develop collaborative skills. As you can see, having a diverse class has its benefits, and implementing the right strategies can be a rewarding experience for both the teacher and the students.

Classroom dynamics for mixed-ability classes

When teaching students of mixed ability, it is important to consider classroom dynamics. Try to vary pair work and group selections as often as possible. In a freer practice activity like a role play or discussion, you might think about pairing students at the same level. If you pair strong students together, give them a slightly harder task. In this case, it would be best to notify students of how much time they have to complete the task. However you decide to run the ESL class, keep the students informed of your intentions. This will help the students to adapt better as you want to try to create a positive learning environment for everyone.

All students should feel supported in the classroom. If you have students well above the level of their peers, it comes as no surprise to hear, “Teacher, I’m finished.” To support these students, give them something productive to work on. It is always handy to have extra activities or questions ready for them to complete. For more examples, read the next section which addresses differentiated learning. Keeping these higher-level students engaged and occupied gives you more time to support students who require more assistance as well. Short one-to-one sessions can also help, especially if you observe a couple of students struggling on a particular section of an activity.

The way that teachers correct or give immediate feedback to their students also has an impact on the classroom environment. To support mixed-ability ESL classes, it is best to address a language-related mistake to the class as a whole so that no one feels singled out. If a couple of students are struggling with the same concept, do a mini-lesson after the activity or get the students to participate in a review game to keep their spirits high.

When it comes to language learning, lowering anxiety is an important factor to consider. Studies have shown that classrooms with high anxiety levels, negatively affect students’ ability to learn the target language. The classroom environment, the teacher’s attitude, and the students’ awareness of the expectations all affect good behaviour management. Building rapport with your students and setting expectations such as how to be a good learner or good classmate are also effective strategies that teachers can use earlier on in the year.

How to incorporate a differentiated learning method

On the other hand, it is also possible that mixed-ability pairings or groupings can cause pressure and frustrations for everyone involved. In this case, it is important to reflect on the kinds of materials and activities being incorporated and even how lessons and instructions are delivered in the classroom. This is one of the biggest challenges for teachers. You might find that advanced students start to underachieve if the tasks given are inappropriate for their level. Weaker students may also feel pressured in the classroom as the tasks may be beyond their capability. The teacher needs to find the right balance of materials that are both interesting and challenging for the students.

Differentiated learning is one way of tackling this issue. Teachers can incorporate a differentiated method by having a wide variety of resources on hand to use in the classroom. Although it may be time-consuming at first, adapting materials is one of the best ways to support the varying levels in the classroom. It is as simple as changing up the activities or tasks like introducing and alternating between comprehension checking questions, open-ended questions, crosswords, matching, multiple-choice, or even by playing a fun team building game. You can also try the following ideas recommended by many experienced teachers:

• For each activity, provide easy, medium, hard level questions

• Incorporate graded readers into the course (ability appropriate materials)

• Use sentence starters or prompts

• Implement realia

The main purpose of differentiated learning is that your students have access to materials that help them to learn more effectively in the classroom. Incorporating this method helps students to be more self-aware of their goals, it gives more opportunities for growth and also gives them the choice to choose challenges when they feel ready. That is why the execution of this method is key. Try introducing these materials in your lesson by scaffolding. Scaffolding is a way of introducing concepts or tasks in manageable stages. Let’s take the sentence starters activity as an example. Before getting the students to write, the first step would be to brainstorm ideas as a class on a topic. If there is any key vocabulary that needs to be covered, have this visible to everyone in the classroom. Once the language aspect is covered, you can move on to model the activity or task. Give a clear example of how to use the sentence starter or prompt. For more advanced students, you can have higher-order questions prepared for them to do once they complete the activity. Higher-order questions encourage students to think more critically or apply what they have learned.

The truth is that these methods take time to get used to. When creating activities that involve mixed pairings or groupings, try emphasizing that there is a task for everyone to do. In a group presentation project, for example, encourage your students to take on different roles. One student can focus on finding information, while another student can create visuals or pictures, another student might come up with questions, and so on. When students have a clear idea of what they are doing, it helps them to feel empowered in their learning.

Assessing mixed-ability ESL classes

It is also important to think about how students are being formatively assessed. If you have a mixed-ability class, using a wide range of assessment options gives students opportunities to succeed. For example, to assess students’ knowledge of a recently learned topic, you could provide options such as a journal-writing assignment, a presentation, a visual-arts project, among others, to encourage and give students the chance to demonstrate their growth and progress in the class. These small changes can help to break a monotonous learning cycle and keep students looking forward to what they will learn next.

Of course, it can also take time to determine the needs of each student in the class. Being aware of the problems mixed-ability classes face helps the teacher tackle any problems quickly. The primary focus should be given to ascertaining students’ true proficiency. To do this, you could collect data from pop quizzes, diagnostic or placement tests, timed writing activities, or simply by observing students within the first weeks of class. Regular formative assessments are also particularly useful in a mixed ability class. Creating a portfolio, for example, not only helps students to see their progress in the class but can also give teachers more information about their students’ strengths, weaknesses, language needs, learning styles, and strategies.

Doing these types of formative assessment can also help to determine how to incorporate a differentiated approach. After collecting this information, use your students’ answers to formulate an action plan. Talking directly with the students is one way to help everyone understand the situation and how to improve it. You may even decide to have an open-class discussion and select different approaches according to the students’ views. Once a plan has been drawn up, explain it to the students and get their agreement. Doing this allows your students to understand what is expected of them, and it will also help get the students’ cooperation and make the class run smoother.

Activities for mixed-ability classes

As mentioned earlier, varying the types of activities used in class has a positive effect on students’ learning and the classroom environment as a whole. It is important to remember that strategies and activities are not one-size-fits-all. In other words, what may work for one class, may not work for another. Therefore, the activities chosen to implement in a class are completely up to the teacher’s discretion, and the success of each activity is based on a variety of factors such as classroom dynamics, students’ learning styles, students’ mood or energy levels, the topic or theme of the lesson, and so on. However, there are a couple of activities that work well no matter what level your students are at.

Mingling activities work well in mixed-ability classes. A mingling activity is where students interact with many other members of the class to perform a task. An example of this would be a ‘Find someone who’ activity. Try Pelmanism games, matching games, or team games, as these are also effective ways of keeping students motivated and engaged. Including English-related games in the classroom can also help students to build meaningful connections with each other, which can make it easier for them to do pair work or group work in future activities. All the activities mentioned can be found throughout the Teach-This.com website.

Teaching mixed-ability classes is not always a walk in the park, but it does not have to be a complete nightmare. In this article, we have discussed that while mixed ability ESL classes may present some challenges, they are not impossible to overcome. Teachers who take on these classes should try their best to set their expectations earlier on in the class and conduct a series of formative assessments to determine how to best help their students. These are the first couple of steps that can surely help to create and sustain a positive learning environment for all your students, no matter what level they may be.

An article discussing ways of helping students overcome difficulties in learning English could initially attempt to focus on specific areas such as pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary usage. However, to do that justice, a whole chapter or book would be required. Instead, this article takes a broader and more simple focus by looking at three general aspects of language learning that are not only important for all learners but particularly crucial for those struggling with the challenges language learning presents. Often, the underlying causes of many of the difficulties students face in learning a second language stem from at least three factors; anxiety, motivation, and learning strategies.

Anxiety

Language learners, in some cases, may have an inbuilt predisposition to feeling anxious, or they may be the type of person who only has anxiety in certain situations. For many students, a language class is a particular context that induces anxious feelings. This is because language learning can put them in situations where their ‘language-ego’ is threatened. This threat can manifest in many ways such as when they feel they are in competition with other learners. Whatever the cause of the anxiety, there seems to be a link between higher levels of anxiety and lower achievement in language learning. However, it is important to consider, just as it is in the case of motivation, whether anxiety is the cause of poor achievement or its direct result. From studies in the field, it appears that both are valid assumptions. It can be the case that a learner with a high aptitude for learning languages and a record of success can experience anxiety after an unexpected failure. But as is the case for many learners, their own general anxiety and the situational anxiety can have a seriously detrimental effect on their learning. Anxiety can have both positive and negative elements. There is a positive anxiety, similar to a feeling of euphoria, that students might feel as a result of the opportunity that learning a new language offers to reimagine themselves in a new and positive way. Negative anxiety might also be a result of a disconnect in the student’s mind between the pedagogical approach in the classroom and their own beliefs about language learning. Thus, it may make sense to conclude that teachers should not only be looking at ways to minimize negative anxiety but also seeking ways to promote positive forms of anxiety.

Anxiety can happen at three stages of the language learning process, and in each stage, anxiety can have a negative impact on learning. In the input stage, learners experience anxiety because they are struggling to understand unfamiliar language or concepts. In the processing stage, stress comes from trying to memorize and identify patterns in new input. In the output stage, anxiety stems from trying to retrieve and use previously learnt language.

As teachers, we can have an impact on learner anxiety through the pedagogical and classroom management choices we make, but we should not be looking to minimize anxiety in all cases. As mentioned previously, anxiety can be beneficial, so it is important to try and promote the correct type and appropriate level of anxiety.

Here are some ways that you can minimize negative anxiety. Do not place too much emphasis on error correction as this can reinforce in the students’ minds the things they cannot do while not encouraging them to acknowledge what they have achieved and can do. Instead, it may be helpful to provide models of correct language usage. This also encourages students to self-monitor their language use and make comparisons and adjustments. With more challenging tasks, take a scaffolded approach and break the task into smaller and more manageable parts that build upon each other. At each stage, you can pause and review to provide assistance so that students feel confident in tackling the next stage. Make it clear to students from the outset that making fun of peers and laughing at errors is not accepted behaviour. Make the classroom a collaborative and supportive environment by creating opportunities for students to reflect on their learning and share their challenges. Try to find ways for stronger students to support weaker students. This may require passing on some basic teaching strategies, but it will contribute to a collaborative and supportive learning environment. Take time to impart and model learning strategies in class as these will equip students with practical tools to take on more challenging tasks. Consistently encourage students to take risks while reminding them that your classroom is a safe place to learn. Help them see that mistakes are welcome as they present an opportunity to reflect and review. Finally, work with students to help them set individual goals and when goals are achieved, use this as an opportunity to acknowledge and celebrate success.

Motivation

Of all the factors that lead to successful language learning, motivation is one of the most crucial. For teachers to be effective in helping their students acquire a new language, they must understand the role that motivation plays in that acquisition.

Motivation can be defined in many ways, but a simple way to look at it is to see it as the reason why people decide to do what they do, why they are or not able to sustain the required effort, and why they are willing to put in the level of effort they do. Motivation can also be seen as a ‘passion’ for doing something. For learners to succeed, they require a certain level of ‘passion’, and it is a teacher’s role to help them find ways to connect to that passion.

When looking at how you might be able to help students develop an appropriate level of motivation, three principles should be kept in mind. Firstly, avoid simplifying motivation as purely a system of rewards and punishments. Instead, try to motivate students by making your lessons more interesting and engaging and helping students become more autonomous learners. Secondly, do not assume that once motivation has been established that it will last automatically. It is human nature that we can lose sight of a goal or become fatigued in its pursual, which can lead us to be distracted by other interests. Therefore, maintaining motivation is a must. Finally, in deciding on particular motivational strategies, always choose quality over quantity. Look for a few simple, effective, and easy-to-maintain strategies that suit your teaching style and your students’ learning styles.

Several strategies can be used to positively influence individual student motivation.

The first is to ignite students’ interest in language learning and the course they are enrolled in. This may involve selling them on what they can realistically expect to gain from the experience – the satisfaction gained from mastering a second language or the future opportunities it can unlock. Try to connect language learning to interests that students already have. For instance, you may learn that some students have an interest in performance arts, so show them how language learning can involve role-plays and music. Make it clear that language learning is not about rote learning vocabulary and grammar rules, but more about a wide variety of learning activities such as communicative tasks and games.

Raise students’ level of expected success. It is no revelation that people’s motivation declines in situations where they might expect to fail. Therefore, it is important to set tasks that students can realistically expect to achieve. Likewise, it is difficult to stimulate and maintain motivation when tasks present no real challenge. According to the theory of optimal arousal, students are generally more motivated when they are required to perform tasks or engage in activities that provide them with challenges that are appropriate for their abilities, i.e., these tasks are neither too difficult nor too easy. When arousal levels are too high, such as being too anxious or stressed by an overwhelming challenge, students may give up and resort to a less stressful activity like texting on their phones. If an activity is easy and students’ arousal level is low, they can become bored and engage in activities that will increase their arousal level such as acting out in class. Therefore, to maintain a healthy expectation of success among students it is necessary to consistently provide activities that give them some sense of accomplishment. It also helps to make the criteria that determine success clear, give sufficient preparation time, and remind students that ongoing support is always available.

Most of us have had the experience of being in class and thinking, “Whenever am I going to need to know this in real life?” Not seeing any personal relevance in what they are doing is another way motivation wanes in students. Therefore, take the time to know what interests students and what their particular goals are and try to link these as much as possible to what is happening in class.

Predictability and monotony are two effective motivation killers. Think about various aspects of the learning process and try to mix them up as much as you can. During each lesson try to vary the focus, types of tasks, learner interaction patterns, and teaching materials.

Not only should your learning tasks be varied but inherently interesting. As previously mentioned, they should be suitably challenging and could also include elements such as personal interest, humour, or novelty.

Self-confidence and motivation usually go hand in hand. Confident learners show a willingness to communicate regardless of the amount of the second language they have acquired. To help students build self-confidence, provide consistent encouragement highlighting their efforts and achievements, and try to minimize their language anxiety. When students feel they can maintain face, they are more engaged and motivated to participate. Continually reinforcing that mistakes are a natural and even welcome part of the learning process should help students feel more comfortable in class. Similarly, avoid putting students in situations where they feel their social image might be threatened. For activities that require free and unscripted speech, rather than having students perform in front of the whole class, consider having them perform in smaller groups in which every member is also required to perform.

Help students become more independent learners. Students who have a sense of ownership in their learning tend to be more motivated. Ownership can be developed by giving students as much of a say in what they do in class as is beneficial to do so. For certain activities, it may be appropriate for students to take on a leadership or teaching role.

Positive reinforcement is a way that teachers can increase learner satisfaction, which in turn, can result in increased motivation. For whatever reason, it is not uncommon for teachers to focus more attention on what students are not doing well and consistently articulating this back to them, rather than giving equal or even more attention to successes and celebrating them with the students. Making it clear to students that you recognize their abilities and achievements helps validate in their own minds the effort they have expended, builds faith in you as a teacher and the course, and adds to the overall tone of a positive learning environment.

The way feedback and assessment are provided can also have an impact on student motivation. When it comes to assessment, it pays to make it as transparent as possible so that learners are clear on the criteria that constitute success. This helps them develop a roadmap for achieving the criteria, and if they can see that they are fair and valid criteria that are clearly linked to the taught syllabus, they can be more motivated in class. Assessment should also make room to acknowledge effort and progress and not just a measure of their current level of proficiency. Provide periodic formative assessment throughout the course to help students track their progress and provide opportunities for feedback. With feedback, allow students to ask questions and make feedback constructive, which does not mean avoiding weak areas and only focusing on the positive. For areas that need improvement, provide clear and easy-to-understand explanations with examples followed by helpful tips to address particular issues. Finally, offer opportunities for peer and self-assessment. This will help promote students’ understanding of their learning and provides opportunities for critical analysis of their own efforts encouraging them to become more autonomous learners.

Learning Strategies

Research shows a positive correlation between strategies that students employ in their learning and their level of success in language acquisition. Successful learners apply strategies that are characterized by an active approach to learning. For instance, they may recite silently in their heads what the teacher says, they may think out an answer in their heads to a question posed to another student, they might closely examine the meaning of the language they are practising, or may actively seek opportunities to use the language outside the classroom either in a passive or active form.

Active learning strategies can be classified in four ways. Firstly, meta-cognitive strategies might include planning a study schedule or reflecting on the success or failure of certain study habits. Cognitive strategies involve techniques such as ways of memorizing vocabulary or using context clues to guess the meaning of words while reading. Affective strategies are characterized by how learners deal with issues such as a lack of motivation or frustration with a perceived lack of progress. Social strategies include the ways students cooperate with other learners or ask questions. For a teacher, it is important to develop some awareness of which particular strategies are more likely to lead to successful language learning and attempt to pass these on to learners who are experiencing difficulties. However, this is not a straightforward process as the specific strategies that work well with one student may not apply to another.

Conclusion

While the ways in which students can have difficulty in learning English are numerous, as a starting point to help your students cope with these challenges, this article has briefly considered three broad but universally relevant areas that affect learners’ ability to succeed. Anxiety, motivation, and learner strategies are all well covered in the academic literature, and it is hoped that this article has sparked an interest in further exploration of the topics covered.

Have you ever opened a textbook, only to find a lesson that is uninteresting and unrelatable to your group of students? While it may not always be possible or practical for teachers to personalize lessons to a group of 20+ learners, there is always the option of adjusting or adapting materials to make them relevant to your students’ learning experience. This article will outline the importance of using relevant materials and activities in the classroom and will also shed some light on how teachers can apply this knowledge to make use of the resources they have.

The problem with most textbooks

The truth is that not all textbooks are made equally when it comes to the quality of content. While textbooks serve as a great resource for foundational concepts such as grammar rules, there are instances where the scenarios in readings or examples are unrealistic and difficult to relate to. As teachers, we have the responsibility to be selective when it comes to choosing the resources we use. It is up to the teacher’s discretion to handpick the material that could be used to facilitate an engaging lesson or activity. As a result, this begs the following question: how can teachers adapt their materials to make them more relevant to the ESL classroom?

The importance of relevancy in the classroom

Several studies have supported the fact that relevant materials help to keep students engaged in a lesson because they give the target language real meaning. This is especially true in teaching contexts where English is not the official language. The use of relevant materials and activities has also been shown to have an effect on increased memory of vocabulary and grammar. Choosing relevant materials means choosing materials that encourage students to start talking about themselves. Since relevance is a huge part of the communicative approach, it is important that teachers take relevance into consideration. When students can relate to the target language, it makes it easier for them to express their own opinions, ideas, thoughts, and feelings.

What should be considered before choosing what is relevant and what is not?

The first step would be to conduct a needs analysis of the students in your class. Observe your students. What motivates them? How do your students learn best? What are their interests? What do they do outside of the classroom? For more specific details, you can ask them to conduct a survey individually or amongst their peers, or even have them write a journal reflection. You can use the following journal prompts or questions:

• What are your goals for learning English?

• Why do you need to learn English?

• What do you want to learn about?

• What are your interests outside of the class?

• What are some things that don’t interest you?

This works especially well for higher levels or mature learners. For lower levels or younger learners, you can have them share their likes and dislikes with their peers or have them draw pictures to get an idea of how to make your future lessons more relatable and to create a more dynamic learning experience.

Doing a simple needs analysis can help you choose appropriate materials or activities that suit your classes best. Of course, the authenticity of the materials you choose will vary based on the context such as where you are teaching or even who you are teaching. It is up to you to decide which materials to use whether it be from the textbook or authentic sources such as newspapers or even video clips.

How to adapt materials to make them relevant

Let’s now move on to discuss the application of relevant materials in the ESL classroom. After conducting a needs analysis, you may notice some patterns in your students' answers. Using this information, try to adapt materials or activities that will help the majority or the class as a whole. For example, if you know that a majority of the students have an active lifestyle or enjoy doing extracurricular activities, you can use this information to create meaningful examples to explain a variety of grammar concepts such as the present simple or present continuous. Students are more likely to pay attention when they can make a more personal connection to the content.

Many teachers also like to include cultural references to make their lessons more relatable for their students. Depending on where you are and your students’ backgrounds, you can allude to different cultural references such as holidays, traditions and customs, national symbols, traditional food, and so on. For instance, you could adapt the students’ knowledge and love for traditional food to teach verbs like ‘to have’ or even in practicing descriptive writing or in developing presentation skills. Some questions you could ask are: What kind of food does your country have? Does your country have spicy food? What do people usually have for breakfast? What kind of food do you have in your fridge? As you can see, basically any activity can be adapted using cultural references to provide your students with more opportunities to use English. It has been proven time and again that familiar topics help students to better identify with the language and help to promote interaction with the use of the target language, so try to implement it when teaching all the skills.

However, there is one small caveat when it comes to cultural references. Steer clear of any topics that may be taboo or sensitive in the local culture. These usually relate to politics, religion, or social mores. Apart from the fact that you may risk causing offence, the consequences can, in some cases, be very severe indeed and lead to either deportation, arrest, or both. Therefore, it pays to understand as much as possible about the local culture in which you are teaching.

The adaptation of materials does not end with cultural references. You can also make materials relevant by helping your students to make personal connections with what they read, hear, write, or discuss. Say for instance you are teaching students studying English in Thailand, and the text that your students have to read talks about what John did in New York last week. If we want to make this scenario more relevant, we can approach it in two ways. First, you could substitute John for the subject ‘you’ or ‘I’ and then change the information to be relevant to where the students live. By doing this you would get something like ‘What I did in Bangkok last week.’ Depending on what is included in the text, you can also work together as a class to create an entirely new story by adapting the reading into a gap-fill activity.

The example above is one way to personalize the material; however, you could use the original reading about John’s week in New York to get your students to use their critical thinking skills to make connections to the text. Although the context of the story might seem to be far removed from what the students might know, a closer look at the similarities would suggest otherwise. If students compare Bangkok and New York, both are big cities, and this could also be an opportune moment to talk about globalization. Potentially, Thai students could also relate to John in New York if his day includes riding the subway, going to school, and then meeting a friend at a café. If there are any differences in routine, it is also a great topic for discussion.

Similarly, if you are teaching learners who are immigrants to Canada, you might want to include activities that focus on the Canadian way of life or the local culture. You could also create lessons that focus on helpful language that allows them to perform essential daily tasks which include but is not limited to going to the bank, grocery shopping, and ordering at a restaurant. Likewise, if you are teaching senior high school students in China, relevance could be on more academic English as many of them would be studying abroad or entering an international program at home.

By adapting our materials to make them more relevant, our students can start to make connections with what they learn, and this is the key to helping them acquire and understand what is taught in class. So, from now on, whenever you open a textbook, ask yourself the following question, “Can my students identify with this material in any way?”

Relevance is an important aspect of teaching English or any language for that matter. Teachers ensure that their activities and materials are relevant when their lessons provide opportunities for their students to communicate real information about themselves which they can potentially use in their day-to-day lives. Use what students know to teach the target language and change or adapt your resources to fit your students’ needs. Changing up your lesson plans in this way can help to break the monotonous learning routine and will help to make English something that your students look forward to learning each day.

Sourcing resources that can be easily adapted for students goes some way in aiding teachers make their materials more relevant that is why all TeachThis resources can be easily edited directly in the PDF or converted into Word using a PDF editor.

Words are the building blocks of a language, and as such, the acquisition of vocabulary is extremely important. Through building vocabulary, students can express themselves more fully and with more confidence. Conversely, having a limited vocabulary can negatively affect how students are able to communicate.

Teaching vocabulary should go beyond a focus on the direct teaching of vocabulary through common methods such as using word searches, crosswords, gap-fills, and vocabulary journals where students write definitions of new words. While these have their place, other approaches such as exposure to target vocabulary in context can be more effective. It is also useful to focus on practice that requires students to use target vocabulary through the productive skills of speaking and writing. This aids deeper and more permanent acquisition.

Teaching vocabulary is a broad and complex topic. This article aims to introduce some useful and practical ideas to help make this important area of language teaching a little easier. The article begins by introducing some simple but effective exercises for teaching vocabulary, and then continues by discussing the issue of vocabulary acquisition, the needs of learners according to level, learning through context, and the use of two well known word lists.

What are some useful approaches to teaching vocabulary?

A good place to start is by using some simple but effective ideas suggested by Paul Nation, a widely respected expert on the subject of vocabulary teaching. Below, he suggests some useful vocabulary learning exercises that require little or no preparation. Before using these exercises, he offers some advice on how to select target words for these exercises.

Choosing the words

1. On a rotational basis, appoint a special vocabulary secretary whose job is to identify difficult words encountered in class for future attention.

2. Select words that have appeared in classwork and materials in the last week or two.

3. Select words that you believe are important for students to know.

Once target words have been identified, employ a combination of the exercises below which are grouped according to some of the key criteria for what it means to 'know' a word.

Exercises that focus on word meaning

Find the fundamental meaning: Students read through dictionary entries and find the common meaning of the different uses of the word.

Word card testing: In pairs, students give their cards to their partner who tests them on their recall of the meaning by saying the word and asking for a translation of the word in return. This process can also be done in reverse i.e., saying the word in the first language and asking for it in the target language in return.

Using the dictionary: When a target word occurs in a text, the teacher trains students in the correct use of a dictionary to locate the meaning of that specific usage.

Guessing meaning from context: Whenever a guessable word occurs in a reading text, the teacher trains the students to employ the various strategies of inferring the meaning from context.

Exercises that focus on word form

Spelling dictation: The teacher calls out words or phrases for students to write down as accurately as possible.

Pronunciation: The teacher writes words on the board and asks students to choose a word and attempt the correct pronunciation. The teacher then gives feedback and/or models the correct pronunciation.

Word parts: The teacher writes words on pieces of paper and students cut them into parts and give the meanings of the parts. This is obviously useful for teaching prefixes and suffixes.

Exercises that focus on word use

Suggest collocations: The students work together in pairs or small groups to list collocations for a given word.

Word detectives: A student reports on an unfamiliar word they have found in their reading. They then give a mini-presentation about the meaning, spelling, pronunciation, word parts, origin, collocations, and grammar of the word.

Now that you have been presented with some simple and practical ideas for teaching vocabulary, it may be useful to delve a little deeper into vocabulary learning and teaching.

It is not always the case that students need to resort to specific vocabulary study books to learn new words. Many people who possess an extended vocabulary do not report having acquired it through direct learning activities and commercial coursebooks.

A common approach to vocabulary teaching starts with a list of words found in a reading or listening activity accompanied by translations in the students' first language and vocabulary exercises. Often, not much attention is given to approaches that ask students to build vocabulary from reading and listening through context, which presents a missed opportunity.

How does successful vocabulary acquisition take place?

For successful vocabulary acquisition to occur, students require a considerable amount of exposure to new words. The process of acquisition should follow a similar path to first language vocabulary acquisition: through context, associations, and constant exposure.

Students must be provided with opportunities for using vocabulary in memorable and meaningful situations. Selecting vocabulary learning activities should be guided by key factors such as how often the words are likely to be encountered and how necessary they are for producing effective communication.

Learning new words involves building up vocabulary from repertoire - that is, relating new words to previously acquired language. Try to imagine building blocks and stacking one layer over the other to consolidate vocabulary and build a strong foundation for future communication.

Teaching vocabulary should also take flexibility and creativity into account. The teacher should avoid approaching words as isolated and independent objects and preferably expose students to the way they are used in sentences and how they can group with other words to form collocations. As an example, apart from simply working out the meaning of the word 'go', it would also be effective to associate it with the preposition 'to' and present it as 'go to' - preferably in a sentence.

With lessons that focus on the receptive skills of reading and listening, it is useful to identify which words are most likely to be unfamiliar to students and do some pre-teaching. The idea is to make sure the students find the activity not only interesting but also meaningful and comprehensible. After students have read or listened to a text, the new vocabulary can be reinforced in other ways such as using flashcards or asking students to use the words in short writing or speaking activities.

Vocabulary learning needs according to proficiency level

Students' level of proficiency is another key consideration when approaching vocabulary learning activities.

Beginners benefit through direct vocabulary teaching as it fosters quick expansion in the number of words they know. Relevant activities might include using flashcards and illustrated handouts along with other memorisation strategies. This is a stage of early development, so it is important that the teacher also focuses on building confidence and a sense of self-accomplishment.

The approach with intermediate students should focus on expanding on already acquired vocabulary. For instance, students can explore the fact that the same word can have multiple meanings. This might involve students discovering how many different contexts they can use words like 'head' or 'park' for example. In addition, it is also valuable for intermediate students to work with affixes such as in-, un-, -less, -ly, and word families as in 'beauty, 'beautiful' and 'beautifully' as a way of expanding vocabulary range.

To build learner autonomy, encourage students to use their imagination so they can come up with their own ways of memorizing words based on their repertoire to consolidate the way they link new words to familiar ones.

Advanced students sometimes become frustrated because they feel that their vocabulary learning has plateaued. This often happens because they may already be familiar with the most frequent general words in the language. Therefore, consider increasing their exposure to academic vocabulary, which is likely to be far less familiar, but more likely to be encountered in future academic and professional life.

Learning vocabulary through context

Regardless of the level, activities requiring students to guess the meaning of a word from context are useful. This invites them to develop their self-sufficiency in contrast to a dependency on the teacher or dictionaries.

It is not only through reading that students can guess meaning from context but also through listening to stories, music, podcasts, and also from watching TV series, and films. Using the same principle of building vocabulary through repertoire, they provide audio and visual context clues.

An example activity would be to choose a story that students are familiar with in their first language such as the story of "The Three Little Pigs". This will make it easier for them to guess the meaning of keywords as they should be able to relate them to an already known context. Students would likely already be familiar with many of the words in the story from their mother tongue. They would also be very familiar with the plot, so there is a rich and accessible context for them to guess the meaning of vocabulary.

Teaching strategies that can help students understand the meaning of unfamiliar words from context is important for their development as independent learners. To do this, they should be looking for context clues such as synonyms, antonyms, definitions, examples, and explanations.

For example, students should become aware that when encountering an unfamiliar word in a text, they should look for words in the sentence or surrounding sentences that help them deduce what the unknown word is. In the example below, we can see that the second sentence offers an 'antonym' that should if the student is aware of the strategy, help them decipher the meaning of 'distraught'.

The English supporters were distraught after losing the final. They were not happy losing another penalty shootout.

Let's use 'definition' as another example. Below, we can see that the second sentence essentially defines the word synthesise. Students should be made aware that phrases such as 'in other words' often signal the clarification of a key term or concept.

Academic writing often requires students to synthesise the ideas of multiple authors. In other words, take key ideas from texts and combine them to produce an original text.

It is important to realize that these context clues may not always be so obvious. Hence, teachers need to carefully evaluate if the activity is suited to students' proficiency level and current vocabulary range.

Learning vocabulary from context is effective, but it should not exclude direct teaching, especially if used as a way of increasing students' awareness and speeding up the development of specific language. By using context, it encourages students to identify and acquire new vocabulary independently because they are equipped with practical strategies. In addition, this approach should be directed to useful vocabulary which will not only enhance their comprehension of listening and reading texts but boost their ability to communicate in spoken and written English.

Word lists for vocabulary learning and teaching

Just as important as understanding what constitutes effective vocabulary teaching, it is also important to be clear on which vocabulary to target. It may not always be obvious for teachers to decide which vocabulary to teach. A good starting point is to consider established and recognised word lists such as the New General Service List (NGSL).

What is the NGSL?

The NGSL is a list comprised of words considered to be the most common and frequently occurring in English - roughly 2,000 headwords. These headwords define word families, for example: 'with: within, without', or 'day: daily, daylight'. It is estimated that the list covers 80% of all words found in general reading texts and 90% of the words used in spoken English.

As previously mentioned, advanced students should already be familiar with a wide range of general words so working with the NGSL might not be a priority for them. Instead, the Academic Word List (AWL) is a better alternative as it focuses on academic vocabulary. Students at this level are often entering universities where English is the medium of instruction, so the AWL provides not only a more challenging and rewarding set of target vocabulary but also one that is highly relevant.

What is the AWL?

The AWL consists of 570 word families of which 90% are not found in the NGSL. They cover 10% of words in academic texts and are often the most challenging. The list is divided into 10 sub-lists in line with the frequency they appear in academic texts, with sub-list 1 being the most frequent and sub-list 10 the least frequent.

For advanced students, both lists are important as when combined, they are estimated to cover 90% of the words found in academic texts.

How can wordlists be used in vocabulary teaching?

Teachers must consider a variety of ways and approaches when selecting vocabulary learning activities, especially regarding students' proficiency level. While beginners can benefit more from direct teaching and activities such as flashcards, intermediate students would be suited to more challenging activities such as guessing meaning from familiar and rich contexts.

Advanced students with a greater familiarity with words in the NGSL can take advantage of the sub-lists in the AWL, especially through reading activities. But it is important to keep in mind that it can be a rather tedious activity if planned for the duration of a whole class. At this level, students are most likely expecting practice in improving their speaking skills in more dynamic tasks such as peer and group interactions.

Therefore, it is better to approach the AWL as a self-study exercise through activities such as reading, matching, and writing exercises. These can be assigned as homework and later checked during class. This way both teacher and students can optimize class time by focusing on the practiced use of specific vocabulary rather than in direct learning.

To illustrate, the teacher could highlight AWL words in a reading passage. Students could then be asked to match these words with their correct definitions or work out their meanings from context, or even use a dictionary (if needed). After working with definitions, students could then match the target words with synonyms. Additionally, students could complete a chart of word families as a way of increasing exposure to their corresponding variations.

In summary, teachers need to deal with vocabulary as a long-term goal and be constantly aware that vocabulary acquisition can be a slow process that requires repetition. Simply presenting new words to students and expecting them to memorise their meaning is an ineffective practice. It is important to link vocabulary to previously acquired language. Meaningful, continuous, and thoughtful exposure to vocabulary is the key. Ultimately, teachers should not only seek to employ effective vocabulary learning activities, but also remember to be patient, attentive, and empathic.

Eliciting is a technique that ESL teachers often use to obtain information about what their students do or don't know. Eliciting techniques are helpful as a diagnostic tool, allowing teachers to easily determine what their students need, without having to waste time rehashing content already covered in class. Eliciting also creates a learner-centered environment as it prompts students to think about the chosen topic in a broader sense, allowing students to share what they know with their peers. There is much you can elicit from students such as language knowledge, background information, general knowledge, opinions, feelings, associations, ideas, questions and answers, etc.

Studies have shown that students become more involved in a lesson through elicitation because they are actively producing speech and giving information. In other words, students become active learners, rather than just passively listening to teacher instruction. Elicitation allows students to exchange ideas and tap into their own collective knowledge. Furthermore, research supports the notion that students are more likely to retain new content through elicitation as it helps to make the teaching and learning of new knowledge more relevant to students.

Depending on the objectives of a lesson, there are many ways eliciting can be used to promote active participation from students. However, there needs to be some initial input or stimulus from the teacher to get things started. Examples of initial input or stimulus can be warm-up questions or visuals, which are covered in more detail later in the article.

Elicitation can present a bit of a challenge with students who come from countries where teachers have a somewhat elevated social status and where maintaining face can be a real concern. This can mean they may be reluctant to respond because they are conditioned to expect that teachers have all the answers, and there is also a fear of giving the wrong answer and appearing foolish in front of peers. However, if the teacher promotes a cooperative learning environment and is persistent, these students can feel more comfortable with elicitation and even enjoy it.

One way to avoid long silences is to consider nominating students to answer particular questions. Do not always rely on a select group of students to respond and give praise and encouragement for any response regardless of it being relevant or not. The aim is to positively reinforce participation. It also helps to give students time to think about what they are going to say and for the teacher to ask more open-ended questions, which have more than one possible correct answer. If you find there is a minimal response from the class, try giving them more input to help direct their thoughts. Below are some techniques you can use in your classroom for eliciting.

Eliciting Vocabulary

Use elicitation when you want your students to come up with a word on their own. Many teachers try to elicit vocabulary from their students as a way to review a previous lesson. There are many ways this can be achieved. A commonly used technique is to have students match words to their definitions. Provide students with a definition and see if they can supply the correct word. Learner dictionary definitions normally contain clear definitions that are easy for students to understand, so having those on hand is ideal when you are trying to elicit vocabulary.

You can also use synonyms to elicit target words. When you use this technique, make a statement and ask students to paraphrase it by using synonyms. You can also use antonyms as a useful way to elicit words from students. Even the act of pretending to forget a word serves as a prompt to get students guessing the particular word you are trying to elicit from them.

For young or visual learners, flashcards or pictures help elicit vocabulary. You can play a variety of games with flashcards to elicit vocabulary. Some examples include Flashcards at Dawn, Mr Wolf, or Whisper. Instructions for these activities can be found in the ESL Flashcards Games section of the website. Or you can use the flashcards as visuals to play a memory review game or even Pictionary. Another way to use visuals in the classroom is by incorporating 'spot the difference' activities, which students often enjoy. More often than not, students become more engaged the moment they see pictures or visuals as they add an element of fun to lessons. Pictures help to bring words to life and allow students to make the connection between the word and the object associated with the word.

Instead of having students write things down in a list, try using mind maps or word clusters. Mind maps or word clusters work better with older students and can also help to elicit vocabulary. Studies suggest that mind maps encourage creativity because the visuals help to promote ideas by encouraging students to see the links and connections between different concepts or words. Simply start by writing a general topic in the center of the board and have the students add words that relate to the topic.

Students often pick up new words quickly, but a problem emerges when they are not given sufficient opportunity to use the words they have learned. Without repeated exposure and practice, the retention of new vocabulary wanes. So, try to find ways to regularly practice the words you teach in class and use them in contexts students will remember. For instance, after eliciting vocabulary about the four seasons, students can work on a review activity like "Seasonal Sort-Out" where they use their existing knowledge to complete a sorting activity. Another example could be after completing an activity about food and drink for beginners, you revisit the items by applying them to the context of creating a shopping list. Try using the worksheet, "My Shopping List" as a way for students to review language connected to food and drink. There are a variety of supplementary worksheets that can be found throughout the website, many of which include fun activities that can be used to review General English topics.

Eliciting grammar

Many teachers often use close-ended questions to elicit grammar. When incorporating teacher-centred methods, asking close-ended questions allows for more control over the lesson and the target language that you want your students to produce. However, there are alternatives for eliciting grammar that are more engaging and interactive. For instance, you can use modelling, a drawing, or a situational dialogue. Create some kind of context for the students to understand the grammar point and then follow up with Concept Check Questions. As an example, let's use this technique with the present continuous. To start the lesson, show a picture of a student in the classroom. For learners who need extra information, have a list of base verbs on the board for students to access. Then, write the following question on the board: What is the student doing (in the picture)? If the students are struggling to come up with words, provide more context by modelling an example sentence or increase the wait time after each question.

If you are doing a reading exercise, ask students to give you examples of the grammar point from the text. For example, have students do a treasure hunt, where they need to find as many present simple verbs as they can. You can also ask students questions that require them to answer using a particular grammatical form. Try dividing your students into smaller groups and giving them a list of conversation questions or dividing the class into pairs and giving each student in the pair a respective set of questions. Certain topics lend themselves to particular grammar structures such as talking about the weekend or a recent vacation or trip (past simple) or describing a routine (present simple). You may also want to try giving students the grammar points first and then eliciting some example sentences.

Eliciting target language in reading activities

Prediction is often used when teaching reading. Normally, headlines or photos are used to elicit ideas from students. This approach gets students to predict elements of the story, key concepts or themes, and language that are likely to be encountered. This helps students focus their reading and usually aids their comprehension of the text.

Presenting headlines or showing photos from current event stories, is one way of incorporating realia or authentic materials in the classroom. Studies have shown that the use of authentic materials in the classroom makes lessons more meaningful and allows students to make the connection between the target language and real life. Predicting is also a useful strategy to help students apply the target language for giving descriptions concerning who, what, where, when, why, and how. You can also get students to expand on a text to practice giving more details. If you've recently covered a lesson on parts of speech, for example, you can ask students to add adjectives to particular nouns or add details to the story.

Retelling a story or text can also serve as a tool to elicit target language. For instance, you can start by providing techniques for how to paraphrase sentences and how to summarise longer passages. To make things more interesting, students can also tell or summarize the story from one particular character's perspective, in the first person or third person, or even present the story as a TV news item. Another way to review a text is to divide students into two groups and have them create their own questions about the text and quiz each other. Alternatively, you can divide the students into smaller groups to elicit the target language through book talks. In these sessions, you can get students to share new words they learned from the text, or share their ideas, opinions, or feelings about what they have read.

Eliciting techniques for current knowledge and new ideas

When a lesson is topic-based, it's useful to begin by eliciting students' current knowledge and understanding of the topic. This can be done by brainstorming with the aid of mind maps or other graphic organizers. Brainstorming helps students to come up with ideas and information related to the topic you are going to teach. The students can work in groups or as a whole class to think of words and associations related to the topic. If done as a class, write up any vocabulary or ideas given which the class might find useful. If done in smaller groups, students can explore the topic with their peers and create word lists or clusters which can then be shared with the rest of the class. Other ways to elicit current knowledge and understanding include using text, pictures, or even telling a story or anecdote and then asking for students' reactions. This approach to eliciting is a benefit to both teachers and students. Teachers can gain more insight into students' understanding of particular topics which helps inform future lesson planning. For students, brainstorming activities help reinforce existing knowledge and assist in acquiring new knowledge.

Freewriting is also a useful activity to help draw on students' existing knowledge. Ask the students to free-write for a few minutes in response to a topic or question. Students will likely draw on past experiences or existing knowledge to help them complete the activity. Again, specific questions or prompts can help to get students started, especially for students who require more input.

Final Thoughts

Eliciting is a helpful tool that all teachers should utilize in their classrooms. As you can see, elicitation can be employed in numerous ways and can be used to teach and review a variety of English skills. Elicitation does not have to be limited to a repetitive question and answer routine. Instead, try implementing the techniques mentioned in this article to make your lessons more interactive. Not only does elicitation serve as a diagnostic or formative assessment tool, but it is also an effective way to help your students become active learners. Elicitation also helps students to explore the target language by comparing their existing knowledge with new content. Most importantly, it allows students to apply what they've learned in different contexts in a more meaningful and memorable way.

Why consider cultural awareness in your classes?

As a second language teacher, you should give some thought to cultural awareness to ensure that you are delivering language instruction without bias, discrimination, or prejudice. Being culturally aware helps you to meet the needs of your students and create an environment where students feel comfortable and ready to learn.

So, how do you go about being culturally aware?

Cultural awareness begins with developing sensitivity and understanding of your students' beliefs, attitudes, behaviours, and values. Be proactive when it comes to learning about the different cultural backgrounds of your students. Learn about the cultural characteristics, history, and customs of your students' native countries. Also, talk to your colleagues as they may have invaluable information that helps you get a better understanding of cultural issues that may arise in the classroom.

Cultural taboos

Find out which topics and actions are taboo. Each culture is different, and there will be certain topics that are off limits such as politics, religion, money, or on-going conflicts. Also, be aware of your own actions. Actions that may be acceptable in your culture might be taboo in another. You do not want to embarrass or upset students through ignorant actions such as pointing, touching, or holding eye contact. If you are teaching in your home country, inform your students about your own culture and share information about which topics and actions are appropriate and which are not. This will not only help your students in the classroom, but also as they interact outside in a new culture.

Diversity and teacher assumptions

The diverse range of backgrounds and experiences students bring to the classroom offer many rewards and challenges. In many countries, students are brought up to be more passive and reserved when interacting with adults. Students in some cultures may often come across as less driven, less knowledgeable in certain topics, or less ambitious than the students you are used to. However, this is very rarely the case. Take the time to get to know your students and their abilities, and do not rely on your own cultural assumptions.

Learning styles

It is important to remember that someone's cultural background often affects the way they interact in the classroom, and how they learn English. Being sensitive to cultural ways of learning is a key step towards developing an understanding of your students' culture. Research online to familiarize yourself with how your students learn in their native country. Common learning methods that are used in classrooms across many cultures are games, storytelling, puzzle-solving, repetition, and visuals.

Cultural references

When teaching, you need to understand that students engage more in learning when the language is presented within the students' cultural frames of reference. If you continually reference a culture or nationality that is different from your students' in your material or teaching, your students may feel that their cultural background is being sidelined. Consequently, they may feel disengaged from learning. Therefore, it is important to adapt your teaching resources or techniques to prevent this. When possible, your lessons should incorporate content that reflects the different cultures of your students to help them learn more effectively and connect with the teaching content.

What are some activities for culturally diverse classrooms?

With multicultural classes, you can encourage cultural awareness by having the students explore and share one another's culture. For example, ask students to give presentations on their home countries or include cultural celebrations, such as Chinese New Year, Songkran, etc. Students can also share their culture by decorating the classroom with maps, flags, descriptions and pictures of traditional festivals, food, music, or sports. Group activities, such as discussing current events or comparing holidays across cultures also help promote cultural awareness.

In which ways can classrooms be culturally diverse?

Many teachers often find themselves teaching in culturally diverse situations. Many of us assume cultural diversity is generally limited to ethnicity and religion, but in fact, culture encompasses a broad range of categories. To promote cultural awareness, teachers need to account for all the different aspects of culture that can influence a student's perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours. These cultural categories include:

Race

Students who differ in skin colour and other physical attributes typical of the majority culture may be dealing with negative feelings connected to their own self-perceptions, or how their classmates may perceive them. It's important for teachers to be aware of this and factor it into their observations.

Religious persuasion

Many students may come from families where there is a tradition of religious adherence. Thus, it is useful for teachers to familiarize themselves with the ways religious traditions and requirements can impact their students' actions inside and outside the classroom.

Ethnic background

Ethnicity is not defined by physical appearance as much as it is by such things as culture, ancestry, language, or religion. Ethnic groups can differ in such things as values, rituals, and communication styles. Understanding these differences can help teachers become familiar with their students' interests and how they see the world.

Sexual orientation and gender identity

A student's sexual orientation and/or gender identity can often subject them to unwelcome attention outside of the class. This is often in the form of bullying or discrimination. This is something that they should not have to deal with in class. Therefore, if teachers find they have members of this community among their students, they should seek information and advice on how best to accommodate their learning needs.

Socio-economic status

A student's learning achievement can be influenced by their economic background. Teachers should be aware of how a student's financial circumstances can lead to classroom pressure and diminish their ability to find adequate time or a suitable place to study, not to mention accessing important learning resources.

How can you create a more inclusive classroom environment?

Lead by example

Teachers should play a leading role in fostering a culturally inclusive classroom by demonstrating their own desire to be culturally aware. This can be achieved by inviting students to share their stories and relate their cultural experiences in the classroom.

Be conscious of the impact of cultural differences

Not all students are openly expressive of their cultural differences, so teachers should respect certain boundaries while being accommodative. Sometimes, cultural differences might be influencing a student's learning progress, so try to be sensitive to this and avoid superficial assumptions. If you suspect issues related to their cultural background are impacting the student, be supportive and consider adjusting your approach.

Cultural differences do not equate to different expectations

Although students may have different needs, they must all have the same expectations. Maintain the same high expectations for all students. Maintaining different expectations for different students can incorrectly send the message that cultural differences determine educational outcomes.

Incorporate cultural diversity into your teaching

In the past, our respective educational systems were ethnocentric and made few concessions to cultural diversity. Try to cater to diversity in your lessons and teaching materials. In this way, you are telling your students that their culture is respected, and their needs are important.

Teaching mono-cultural classes that differ greatly from your own.

In many instances, teachers may find themselves teaching in a foreign country where all the students share the same national culture. This culture may be very different from the teacher's own and can present a unique set of issues.

What issues could these differences manifest?

How can teachers navigate their way through these issues?

One way to deal with these questions is to familiarise oneself with a framework of culture such as Geert Hofstede's Dimensions of National Culture.

Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory is a framework for understanding cultural differences, and to determine the ways these differences affect behaviour. This framework can be applied to any inter-cultural situation such as a language class.

Hofstede's framework identifies six categories that define culture, which can be seen in the chart below that compares two divergent cultures, Australia, and Japan.

Power distance - In high power distance cultures, social structures are more hierarchical and there is more respect for authority. In low power distance countries, people question authority and attempt to distribute power more equally.

Power distance can affect classroom communication. For instance, because Australia is a low power distance society, the communication style can be described as informal, direct, and participative. Conversely, Japanese communication is more indirect and less chatty than the style more common in Australia.

What are the possible classroom implications of power distance?

In this example, an Australian teaching English in Japan, the teacher should accept the different communication style of their students and employ strategies to accommodate it. This might mean creating an environment where students feel more comfortable communicating amongst themselves in smaller groups and to the class. Therefore, regularly incorporating group work activities and regularly switching students between groups should encourage more participative communication with students.

Individualism - Individualistic societies have looser interpersonal links outside of the immediate family or inner circle of friends. In contrast, collectivist societies have more tightly connected relationship links with extended families and other in-groups such as those at school or work. Australia scores very highly on this dimension, so Australians tend to be self-reliant and act independently. In contrast, the Japanese are more inclined to put the harmony of the group above the expression of individual opinions and people have a strong sense of shame for losing face.

What are the possible classroom implications of individualism?

As the risk of losing face may be a source of anxiety for students, try to avoid situations in which students may perceive such a risk. This could be as simple as avoiding singling out students to express their personal opinions to the whole class. Instead, have students discuss the issue in groups, and then ask one student to report back their group's findings to the class. In this way, a 'wrong' answer is not attributed to a particular student.

Masculinity - High masculinity countries value achievement, and material success. However, low masculinity countries tend to value cooperation, modesty, and quality of life over success and achievement.

Australia is moderately masculine, so people strive to be and do their best and individual success is celebrated. While Japan ranks higher in this dimension, competition to succeed is more between groups than individuals.

What are the possible classroom implications of masculinity?

This seems to suggest that the teacher should give priority to activities and tasks that are group focused. Where students may be required to work individually, it could be for the purpose of making a group or class-wide contribution. Also, it is likely students would respond positively to activities that require them to compete or work in teams.

Uncertainty Avoidance - In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, people seek predictability and try to avoid unstructured situations. This often manifests in strict laws and rules. In low uncertainty avoidance countries, people tend to have a more relaxed, open, or inclusive attitude. In general, social conventions are not as strict.

Australia is a moderate uncertainty avoidance society, so people tend to cope with ambiguous or unknown situations. However, Japan shows high uncertainty avoidance, which can mean there is a tendency to not go against social norms and conventions.

What are the possible classroom implications of uncertainty avoidance?

This indicates that Japanese students prefer a more structured environment. This can mean communicating expectations, the course content, and assessment details from the outset. It would also help to ensure students always have easy access to this information. Furthermore, lesson aims should be made clear at the start of each class, and instructions and student roles for activities explained clearly.

Long-term Orientation - Countries with a long-term orientation tend to be pragmatic, modest, and thriftier. In short-term oriented countries, people tend to place more focus on principles, consistency, and truth.

Australia scores low on this dimension and so there tends to be more focus on short-term planning and results, and people are more tolerant of boastfulness. In Japan, there is more emphasis on long-term planning, and an immediate result is not as important as the long-term goal. There is an expectation of more modest behaviour.

What are the possible classroom implications of long-term orientation?

The findings here could suggest that as a way of motivating students, it may be helpful to make it clear how a certain lesson or activity fits in with a long-term goal. For example, most students do not enjoy giving class presentations. However, by reminding them that this is an important skill for university and future professional life, it may motivate them to prepare and perform better.

Indulgence - In high indulgence cultures, making time for leisure and enjoying life are valued and looser standards of behaviour exist. In low indulgence societies, more value is placed in the suppression of gratification and the regulation of people's conduct and behaviour. There is also a stricter expectation to adhere to social norms.

With Australia being high in indulgence, there is a tendency for people to act on impulses and desires, and place importance on leisure and fun. Japan, on the other hand, is a more restrained, society, putting less emphasis on leisure time. Actions are restrained by social norms and there is a common feeling that indulging oneself is somewhat wrong.

What are the possible classroom implications of indulgence?

Games and fun activities are a mainstay of the second language learning classroom, and they are, without question, effective ways to teach the language. However, it may be the case, that a Japanese student may question the validity of such activities. They may view games as being frivolous.

Another implication of indulgence is the way the teacher communicates in the class. Showing and expressing excessive emotions and talking openly and freely about oneself may be perceived by some as foolish and unprofessional.

Hopefully, this article has given you some new and useful insights into the important role culture plays in the classroom, and you feel better positioned to explore the topic more with the aim of making classes more culturally inclusive, making classes where intercultural misunderstandings are less frequent, and making the classroom a more comfortable and fulfilling experience for both the students and the teacher.

How can you know a particular task or lesson achieved its aim?

What is concept checking?

Concept checking questions are simply targeted questions used at the end of an activity or lesson to gauge students' understanding of a concept or language point. For instance, at the end of a lesson about ‘be going to for future plans’ rather than asking a question like, “Do you know how to use ‘be going to’ for future plans?”, which will not generate much useful information if any, you could go around the class and ask students what their plans are for the weekend.

For example:

        Teacher: What are you doing this weekend Rodrigo?

        Rodrigo: I am going to visit my grandparents.

        Teacher: What are you doing this weekend Aluna?

        Aluna: I go to shopping mall.

Here we can see clearly that Rodrigo has a better grasp of ‘be going to’ for future plans than Aluna does.

There are a few reasons why concept-checking questions should be employed in your teaching. Firstly, they are efficient and effective. Asking a question like, “Do you understand?” often results in the teacher, later on in the activity, realising that the students did not understand. This may require halting the activity and restarting from the beginning. Students will often reply yes because they may genuinely believe they have understood something when in reality, they have failed to grasp the concept. Students can also often be reluctant to answer the question honestly for fear of losing face. Therefore, it is necessary to be more strategic in the way you concept check.

Another advantage of concept checking questions is that they can be used in almost every lesson and are very versatile. They can be repeated to check the same or similar concept or teaching point and can be adapted to check other language concepts.

In addition to helping teachers measure their students’ level of understanding, concept checking questions encourage students to actively participate in the lesson which is an important part of discovering and understanding new language. Through concept checking questions, students are called upon to convey their language knowledge in class, which then allows the teacher to clarify and enhance that knowledge. Concept checking questions are also a good way of informing the content of subsequent lessons.

Another benefit of using concept-checking questions is that in the process of preparing them, you will soon realise whether you have understood what you are teaching or not. Before asking concept-checking questions, it is necessary to prepare them as an integral part of the lesson planning process. This requires fully understanding the concept being taught, which means taking the time to examine the language point more closely. This may seem a little onerous, but this process can actually provide a useful catalyst for generating concept-checking questions as you will see later in the article.

While the preparation of effective concept-checking questions may seem daunting, there are some straightforward ways to approach them. Here are some tips for creating successful concept questions:

The questions should be easy to understand and contain no new or difficult language. Vocabulary is an important consideration when formulating concept-checking questions. The simplest of language points can become extremely confusing if the questions contain advanced or unfamiliar words. Therefore, try to stick to vocabulary that students have already covered in the course or is as close as possible to their current CEFR level. Also, the questions shouldn't contain the target language itself. A final point about language is that the questions should not require answers that contain complex language. Therefore, simple either/or questions, ‘Wh’ questions, or yes/no questions usually work quite well.

The questions should get the students involved in thinking about the basic concept of the target language regarding such things as tense and time. The questions should also clarify the form, function, or meaning of the language.

Try to ask as many concept questions as you can to cover the various aspects of the language and to get feedback from as many students as possible.

It is important to repeat the significance of avoiding questions like 'Do you understand?' Such questions will not give you any true insight into the students' understanding. Similarly, avoid general questions such as:

        Incorrect: Do you understand how to use the present simple?

        Correct: What do you like to do after school?

        Incorrect: What does ‘benefit’ mean?

        Correct: Tell me one benefit of learning English.

        Incorrect: Do you know how to use prepositions?

        Correct: Do we say ‘at’ Monday or ‘on’ Monday?

It is also helpful to remind students that clearing up misunderstandings are a part of everyday communication and an essential and unavoidable part of the learning process. Hence, try to make it clear to students that concept checking is not about embarrassing them, but it is about helping the students improve and helping the teacher teach more effectively.

Concept questions vary greatly due to the diversity of the English language. They are not only useful for grammar points and structures, but also vocabulary, functions, and idiomatic expressions.

Here are some examples of how concept questions might be used with present tenses:

Present simple: Harry lives in a one-bedroom apartment.

        Information question: Who lives in the apartment?

        Information question: How many bedrooms are there?

        Yes/no question: Does Harry live in a house?

        Yes/no question: Does Harry live there now?

        Shared experience question: Does your family live in a one-bedroom apartment?

Present continuous: The students are taking an exam.

        Yes/no question: Is the exam finished?

        Yes/no question: Is the exam happening now?

        Yes/no question: Are the students taking the exam tomorrow?

        'Wh' question: Who is taking the exam?

        Shared experience question: Do you enjoy taking exams?

An easy and practical way of formulating concept questions is by writing down all the elements of the concept, which can act as prompts from which to create your questions.

For example:

1. Jum has been exercising.

Concept: She isn't exercising now, and I didn't see her exercising, but I could guess she was exercising because she might be sweating, breathing heavily, or wearing workout gear.

        Is Jum exercising now?

        Could Jum be feeling tired?

        Do you think Jum is wearing a school uniform?

2. Omar is going on holiday to Jamaica.

Concept: He is not in Jamaica now, he is probably flying there, and he is not going for work.

        Is Omar in Jamaica?

        Will Omar fly on a plane?

        Does Omar have a business meeting in Jamaica?

If the students answer the questions appropriately, it shows they have understood the concept. You can then move on to ask other types of concept questions. For example, in the first example above, you could follow up with a shared experience question such as, “What is your favourite type of exercise?”

Concept questions can also be combined with other methods to check understanding. Here are some other possible methods:

Paraphrasing or summarizing exercises. These are especially useful for higher-level students when teaching listening and reading. Accurate paraphrases and summaries require a solid understanding of the source material.

Activities that require the arrangement or categorisation of content are useful ways of checking understanding. For example, having students create timelines can be used to check their understanding of the difference in meaning between various tenses. Students can be asked to apply scales or grades to show their understanding of such things as adverbs of frequency – always (100%), usually (75%), sometimes (50%), occasionally, (25%), and never (0%). Arranging words into categories also works well. For example, students could be asked to arrange animals into categories such as pets, farm animals, or wild animals.

Worksheets or homework assignments that contain guided practice exercises are an easy and effective way of seeing what students have or have not grasped. In addition to Yes/No or Wh questions, teachers can ask negative checking questions such as, “Do I say, 'You was'?”. Fun games such as ‘Hot Seats’ are a good way to check students' understanding of new vocabulary as the students are asked to define words through both description and the use of synonyms without actually saying the word.

Concept checking can be used at any point during a lesson. However, avoid any temptation to overuse it as this can cause a lesson to get bogged down and lessen some of the positive energy an activity initially generated. Concept checking should generally be limited to the specific learning aims of the lesson. If used correctly, concept-checking questions provide a rich source of information from which to make your teaching more successful. They are also an effective way to help make lessons more participative and less passive.

Effective classroom management is important because it has a very positive impact on your ability to teach and your students’ ability to learn. Without good classroom management, a negative learning environment can emerge where students are demotivated and distracted, and teachers are stressed and eventually feel burnt out. Proper classroom management, on the other hand, results in a situation where a teacher’s time and energy are primarily focused on teaching with less time wasted on dealing with behaviour management.

While successful classroom management requires planning, preparation, and effort in the early stages of a course, it does make teaching easier in the end. It also results in improved student progress because they are learning in an environment where expectations are clear and there are minimal interruptions. Students can just get on with the business of learning. This article will cover some of the key areas to consider when developing an effective classroom management plan.

Arranging the Physical Environment

The physical setup of your classroom is perhaps the most obvious place to start. This can have a significant impact on the way your classes run. Some thought is required for how furniture and materials are arranged within the classroom. There is no one size fits all answer for this aspect of classroom management as teachers find themselves in a variety of situations and circumstances. For example, classes often vary in terms of size. If you are teaching a small class, perhaps using a horseshoe arrangement might work best, but for large classes, arranging the tables in groups may work better. You might have classes in which students are required to access certain materials, so you may need to think about where the materials are kept and how students can easily access them without causing too much disruption to the lesson. Not all classrooms are designed well so when thinking about how to arrange desks, make sure all students are in clear view. This ensures that you can easily check that all students are on task and that they can clearly see anything you are explaining or demonstrating.

As the course progresses and you get to know your students better, you may want to play around with your seating arrangements. You could develop a seating plan to manage certain unwanted behaviours. You can decide to seat disruptive students at the front of the class, separate pairs who are continuously talking in their first language, or you can arrange the class so that groups contain a mix of weaker and stronger students. Do what you can to ensure a suitable physical environment for learning. Reorganizing classroom seating also allows for easier movement from student-to-student or group-to-group and this has the benefit of preventing time wasting.

Establishing and Maintaining Appropriate Authority

While it is appropriate and beneficial for teachers to have a friendly relationship with students, language classes require a certain amount of structure and discipline that ensures that classes are productive and meeting learning outcomes to at least a satisfactory level.

Authority begins with teachers having the necessary self-confidence in their teaching ability and their capacity to lead a group of learners. For some new teachers, confidence may be in short supply, but rest assured in the knowledge that all teachers feel slightly nervous before a new class. It is normal and very human. You may feel nervous, but your students do not need to know this. As far as they are concerned, you are a hardy professional. The key is to present yourself with confidence.

It helps if you have prepared thoroughly for the lesson as this will give you some reassurance that things are likely to go to plan. It also helps to project a sense of professionalism to your students by dressing the part and arriving early to set up the classroom and greet students as they arrive. If you are lacking a sense of confidence and feeling anxious, simply fake it. By not coming across as hesitant and unsure, you are more likely to get a sense that your students have a good initial impression of you. This is something you can take to your next class and build from there. In a short time, any insecurities you may be feeling about your teaching abilities will subside, and you will find your classes becoming increasingly more rewarding. With a sense of confidence, establishing authority in the classroom becomes easier.

Creating a Balance between Friendliness and Authority

While maintaining a friendly relationship with students is required to build a positive learning environment, it should not be forgotten that the teacher has a certain responsibility to maintain an orderly, safe, and respectful classroom environment. For this to be achieved, teachers need to establish a certain level of authority. Authority is not something that is automatically bestowed upon the teacher and is something that needs to be developed and earned. Building authority is fairly straightforward and common sense. First, establish clearly defined rules and boundaries. When there is a clear and easy to understand set of academic and behavioural expectations, students are less likely to make transgressions. Get the students involved in creating a set of rules and corresponding penalties as this helps ensure more buy in and compliance. It is also important to enforce class rules with consistency and fairness.

Take time to listen and get to know your students. When students feel heard and respected, they are more inclined to act in a reciprocal manner as they will not want to disappoint someone who they respect. Also, if you are seen as open and approachable students are more likely to open up about any issues they may be experiencing in the classroom. In getting to know your students, you will build empathy for them and will be less likely to disparage them, embarrass them, or talk down to them.

A positive learning environment often stems from the teacher’s energy and demeanour. Projecting enthusiasm for a lesson or topic sets a model for students to emulate. Students are less likely to be motivated if they sense the teacher does not believe in what they are teaching. Using appropriate humour is also a good way to reduce anxiety among students and shared laughter helps bring the class together.

It is also important that you do not unconsciously undermine the authority you have worked hard to establish. Often as teachers, we may share aspects of our personal lives as a way of building bonds with our students or to even illustrate a teaching point. However, show discretion in what you decide to share as this could weaken your authority. For example, refrain from sharing anything controversial as this may impact negatively on the way certain students view you, especially if what you share relates to any prevailing cultural or societal taboos. A situation like this could also result in a teacher being disciplined by the school authorities, which if made known to students, may harm your ability to control the class.

Getting Classes off to a Good Start

Thinking about the way we begin our classes is important as the beginning stages can set clear signals about the general tone of the class and what is expected of students. It is often the case that classes do not start on time. It is very difficult for teachers to get the class underway as soon as the bell rings as students arriving late eventually disrupt the first activity. To deal with this, it may be a good idea to set the students a task that is productive and academic as soon as they arrive at their desks. This could be as simple as having students read independently until all students are present. By assigning specific tasks for students as they enter class, the teacher is establishing a routine that helps instill in the students the right mindset for successful language learning.

Activities

A language lesson is essentially a simple collection of related activities designed to meet a set of clearly defined learning outcomes. Thus, the way activities are managed is a crucial area of consideration. When setting up an activity, make the learning objectives of the task clear from the outset as this imparts a sense of purpose and provides a focal point for the lesson. In addition, it is important to preview content and highlight and examine any important or challenging language or concepts, which if followed up with some concept checking, gives you and the students confidence in completing learning tasks.

When giving instructions, use clear and precise language. Repeat or rephrase your directions if necessary as it is often the case not all students are paying attention or were able to comprehend. Take time to explain the purpose of the task and make sure your students understand. Use an appropriate tone. If you use an enthusiastic tone, this will project onto the students and contribute towards building their enthusiasm for the task. It is important to describe the specifics of the task as this gives students a clear idea of what your expectations are and what the challenges involved include. This helps learners prepare appropriately. Where possible, provide examples of the end product. Especially for complex tasks, break them down into manageable chunks. So, this might require taking the time to pause and review at various critical stages.

Dealing with Critical Moments

No matter how good your class is, there is always the chance of inappropriate behaviour raising its head. The way inappropriate behaviour is dealt with can determine how disruptive the behaviour ultimately becomes and how likely it is to be repeated. Whatever the circumstances, it is always best to remain as calm as possible. A teacher who handles inappropriate behaviour with a certain amount of grace can gain empathy from the remainder of the class who can then exert some positive peer pressure on the disruptive student. Depending on the nature of the incident, the teacher may wish to deal with the issue after class to avoid disrupting the class or the teacher can also decide to deal with it immediately in the presence of the class as a way to ensure that the behaviour is not replicated by others. As a rule, it is recommended that if you deem the incident serious, you should consult with a supervisor as they can provide advice, assistance, or inform you of any necessary school disciplinary protocols.

Monitoring

Another key element of classroom management is monitoring. Monitoring involves teachers moving around the classroom, observing how well or poorly students are progressing through a task and working with students one-on-one as required. Most successful teachers have systematic procedures for supervising and encouraging students while they work. Monitoring allows teachers to assess the progress of individuals and the class as a whole and informs what needs to be re-taught or practiced further.

There are some reasons why monitoring is a powerful classroom management tool. Firstly, it helps you to become aware of whole class dynamics. You can ascertain whether the pace of the lesson is too fast or too slow, and which students may need individual attention. This helps shift the focus from simply following the lesson plan to focusing on the needs of the learners themselves. While monitoring, teachers can listen for errors in the target language and address these immediately or in subsequent teaching. Monitoring allows teachers to intervene and address problems such as helping individuals or pairs who have clearly not grasped the aim of the task, or the language point being taught. Continual and consistent monitoring also provides a type of formative assessment for both individuals and the whole class, which becomes a good source of information for end-of-course reporting and feedback.

Monitoring also allows you to assess a task. We all know that some activities are more successful than others. Through monitoring, a teacher can evaluate the task and then decide whether to make future modifications or decide to replace it.

Monitoring can help maintain discipline as it helps ensure that learners, simply through the teacher’s presence, stay focused and on task. Also, large classes can become restless and bored when some students finish a task early. In this case, the teacher can provide some short backup activities for early finishers or could use these faster learners to assist weaker students.

Using Rewards

The use of rewards as a classroom management tool is somewhat controversial. On the positive side, reward systems make behavioural expectations clear to students and make it easy for them to conform to those expectations. Rewards can have an immediate positive impact on motivation with students showing more interest, participating more, and acting more responsibly to receive rewards. However, according to some, rewards are a form of bribery and manipulation and do not result in the more valued intrinsic form of motivation. Children, it is argued, are more focused on the reward and less so on their learning and developing good behavioural habits. However, if we shift the intention of using rewards from one that seeks to control behaviour to one that aims to provide positive feedback, rewards can help foster intrinsic motivation. For this to happen, it is important to highlight a student’s specific skills or achievement and their hard work when giving a reward. Instead of saying, “Well done! You completed the task. Now take this sticker.”, say something like, “Wow! You worked really hard, and now you are writing very clear paragraphs that always begin with a topic sentence. Here’s a little reward for your achievement.” In this way, the student becomes aware of what they did well, which helps them become a more reflective and independent learner more capable of repeating that success.

If you do decide to implement a reward system in your class, there are three simple approaches you can choose from.

A token-based system: with the individual student, set a shortlist of achievable goals which are rewarded with things like stickers or points when they are achieved.

Group points: based on a class-wide set of learning and behavioural goals, groups or tables collectively earn rewards competing against other groups or tables.

Class points: The entire class earns rewards together for meeting previously identified goals.

You can decide to use a combination of the three approaches as this ensures that all students, at some point, have a realistic opportunity of receiving a reward.

To sum up, classroom management is a fairly broad topic, and this article has discussed just some of the more important areas to consider when looking at ways to help your classes to run more smoothly and effectively. It is an area where all teachers, no matter their level of experience, can improve, and develop. Hopefully, this article has provided you with some useful tips and information which can be used as a springboard for further reading and discussion with colleagues.